" ¿What is Modular Architecture?

Modular Architecture can be understood as the design of any system composed of basic components (modules) that can be connected, in most cases through interlocking. 

The basis of modular architecture is that modules can be added, taken off, or replaced without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, repetition is one of the key characteristics of modular systems. There is also a need for an open plan, which works as a flexible scenario where modules can be arranged in different combinations. ¹ 

The opposite of a modular architecture is an integrated architecture, in which no clear divisions exist between components. The scales of modular architecture can go all the way from tiling and furniture to city blocks or a complete urban plan. Although the concept of Modular Architecture was adopted at the beginning of the XX century, its actual origins can be traced not only far back in history, but also everywhere around the world. ..."

article written by  DIMITROUDI MARIA , FERNANDEZ ANA BEATRIZ , VACHEZ MARIA INES

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Throughout this chapter on the Cuban economy, we aim to provide the reader with a set of tools to analyze the current economic conjuncture of Cuba. 

For this purpose, we will first present a brief introduction to the economic history of the island, outlining the most important economic milestones in Cuban economic development since the Spanish colony.

From there we will proceed to explore the current economic system of the island. Throughout this section, we will briefly summarize the main economic sectors and the most significant economic relations of present-day Cuba. 

Thirdly, we attempt to discuss some important aspects of the daily life of Cuban citizens. We will do this with a brief analysis of the daily expenses of ordinary citizens.

All in all, rather than describing the current situation, it is our goal that the reader finds in this text a helpful tool for understanding the trends triggering the profound systemic transformation that is taking place currently in Cuba.

article written by Guarrotxena, Nere &  Orduz, Alejandro

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Until the German reunification in 1989, development cooperation between Cuba and Germany was tense. On the one hand close cooperation between Cuba and the GDR and on the other hand the resulting critical attitude of the FRG.

The Cuban Revolution in 1959 brought the new socialist Cuba and the GDR closer together. Not only did they share an ideological kinship, but they also suffered from similar economic challenges. From the initial development aid in the areas of secret service, administration, and police, which were to be designed according to real socialist models, close economic cooperation soon developed. This allowed the two states to exchange products that would otherwise have been denied them by the US embargo. At that time around 85% of all Cuban imports came from the GDR or USSR. Of particular interest to Cuba in this context was the importation of machines, technologies, and entire factories that were urgently needed for the modernization of the country. In return, the GDR received currency-saving access to tropical fruits and sugar, as well as a preferential price for a nickel.

However, it was quickly recognized that importing technologies without the necessary know-how was not enough. In the 1970s, an exchange of workers and students began so that they could be trained in the GDR. In the course of the next 20 years, more than 30,000 young Cubans were sent to East German combines for training. Since many of them were trained in the textile industry, an industry that was almost non-existent in Cuba, they were only met with poor employment prospects when they returned. Although a large part of their wages was transferred directly to the Cuban state budget, many of the contract workers decided to stay in the GDR even after their training. Together with the efforts of international socialist youth and student exchange, this led to a lively cultural exchange in the following period.1

With the fall of the Soviet Union and the reunification of Germany, this relationship changed fundamentally. While the last GDR government had decided on complete debt relief in the summer of 1990 given the economic crisis in Cuba, a little later unified Germany insisted uncompromisingly on repayment of the money. The result was diplomatic tension and the breakdown of all official relations.2 In the course of this, the Cuban government also demanded the return of all guest workers to their socialist homeland, which was later canceled in 2003 on the initiative of Cuba.3

the article was written by Philipp Merbeler  & Peter Richter

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Design-build per definition is a project delivery system used in the construction industry. It is a method to deliver a project in which the design and construction services are contracted by a single entity known as the design-builder.

In the traditional approach for construction projects, the client separately hires the contractor and architect and the two must cooperate. The architect usually starts their job first and will design the building, eventually producing a set of drawings.

Design-Build is a project delivery method that merges the designer and builder so that the two are part of the same organization that handles the entire process (B2). It changes the traditional sequence of work. There is then a  single point of responsibility to reduce risks and overall costs. It is now commonly used in many countries and forms of contracts are widely available. Having one organization handle both aspects of the process means that “buildability”(B3) can be part of the design process from day one, and aesthetics can be a consideration in every late-phase on-site decision.3 The result is aiming toward a cheaper and prettier building and better team relationship overall. Design-build plays an important role in pedagogy, both at universities and in independently organized events such as Archicamp or Bellastock, linked to the university of Paris-Belleville (B4).

article written by EMMA VERDIER, DONKA DIMITROVA & JORGE LUI

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According to the Koppen-Geiger climate classification map (Beck et al. 2018 ), Cuba experiences three major climates across its territory. Savannah (also referred to as Wet and Dry Tropical) climate is by far the most predominant. This is followed by Monsoon Tropical climate and Tropical Rainforest climate which are experienced at micro-scale localisations in proximity to mountain ranges and Tradewind coasts.

Under the Savanna climate, Cuba experiences two distinct seasons: wet season, running from late April to early November (summer), and dry season from late November to early April (winter). Summers are hot and humid with substantial rain and the average high temperatures of 32°C. Winters are warm and relatively dry with the average low temperatures of 20°C. Due to the trade winds and topography of the island, the Cuban winter is more noticeable in the western half of the island than in the eastern half. Throughout the entire year, Cuba enjoys plenty of sunny days with an average of 11 sunshine hours per day. The hurricane season lasts from July to November, with the peak of storm activity happening during September and October (INSMET n.d).

The Monsoon and Tropical Rainforest climates, exist in Cuba as localized micro-climate phenomena and are located close to mountainous areas and along the Tradewind coasts.

The Monsoon climate is associated with the seasonal reversal of the wind and can therefore be localized along the coasts and slightly higher altitudes. Here, the precipitation is concentrated in the high-sun season from May to September with higher humidity than in the rest of the country. 

The Tropical Rainforest Climate is characterized by a year-round wet (summer) season with frequent and heavy rains and high humidity.  The day-night variation in temperature is much more significant than that in the areas experiencing the Savannah climate and larger than the yearly variation in day temperature. Annually, however, the daytime temperature remains constant throughout.

The main factors influencing the climatic conditions of Cuba are the trade winds, latitude, and water surroundings.

the article was written by Baran Edyta & Kirtak Tildem

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Bio-climatic construction and design processes are based on a climate and environmental-aware architectural practice-oriented to achieve efficient use of energy during a building’s lifetime. 

The term ‘bio-climatic architecture’ was coined by the architects Victor and Aladar Olgyay in the early 1960s at the School of Architecture and Urban Planning of Princeton University. Thereby, both scholars aimed to respond to the emerging environmental concerns of growing sectors of society in the late 1960s. However, with the Peak Oil Crisis of the early 1970s, this approach gained significant momentum and became widely implemented.

Thereby, practitioners designing bio-climatic architecture seek to generate optimal comfort conditions on the smallest energy budget possible, thus reducing the building’s overall carbon footprint and maintenance costs to a minimum during the building’s lifetime. Therefore, practitioners constructing bio-climatic architecture often use high-tech components to increase the building’s energy efficiency.   Nonetheless, it is of crucial importance to mention that the bio-climatic architectural discourse is centered on the energy performance of erected buildings, disregarding the energy flows running into the material’s extraction & transportation and the building’s demolition. 

Publishers comment: The author of this article mainly combines various parts of other publications to give the reader a first glance at the topic. Unfortunately, this article does not work with quote notes. The last pages provide the reader with a list of sources to which this article refers to.

article written by Guarrotxena, Nere; Orduz, Alejandro; Sánchez, Santiago; Romero, Ihordan Ernesto

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The obsolete figure of the “star-architect” begins to falter to give presence to an emergent call coming from a social part that is not represented in conventional practices. As far as the social gap towards a more unequal society grows, similarly, a parallel need to reconnect with all the social sectors appears. Particularly to the more vulnerable habitats, those that the politics don´t look at and consequently don´t have access to proper spaces. So, the work towards social inclusion and urban integrity recognizes that people living with very little equally as the well-off people have a right to good architecture. And as architects/ urban designers we pursue the will to improve people’s lives, understanding architecture as a service to others. Thus, pretending to reach the most needed people means rethinking the role of architecture in society and implies an exit from the comfort zone of conventional practices. This revindication gives up egos and personal goals of wealth, fame, and power, focusing on a more democratized process of design. To do so, alternative modes need to be generated through participatory processes. And this premise inevitably brings about a variety of tendencies, new experiments, and several perspectives in the field, that are not easy to implement.

„Claiming the social and pedagogical dimension of the profession“  - Nere Guarrotxena

Publishers comment: The author of this article did not work with quote notes. The last pages provide the reader with a list of sources to which this article refers.

article written by  GUARROTXENA , NERE; ORDUZ, ALEJANDRO; SANCHEZ, SANTIAGO

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In 1959 Fidel Castro’s rebel army ‘assumed power’, replacing Batista’s defeated government. Due to shared communist ideologies Castro immediately received support and money from the Soviet Union and swiftly began armed intervention overseas. Over the following three years invasion attempts began in neighboring Latin American countries such as the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Panama but were largely unsuccessful. In the 1960s, Cuba also began sending money and arms to resurgent groups with communist sympathies in Venezuela, Guatemala, and Colombia. This is a trend that would continue over the next 25 years and also expand to sending troops to ‘assist and coordinate’ support of Soviet aims abroad. 

From the mid-1960s, the focus shifted away from Latin America toward Africa and the Middle East. Throughout the 1970s and 80s Cuban military presence and fighting reached their peak, most notably in the Ogaden War of 1977/78 and the Angolan Civil War. Spending was increased and millions of dollars were sent to support revolutions, causing the military budget to rise to 13% in 1985. The size of the military also increased to become the ‘largest force in the Caribbean Basin’ and include 20% of its population in various branches. This enabled Cuba to send 17,000 troops to Ethiopia by 1978 and 50,000 to Angola by 1987. In both instances the Cuban-supported rebels were successful but this was only made possible due to the assistance of Soviet forces and finance.

The dependence on support from the Soviet Union can be seen by the change in military tactics after the fall of the USSR. In the late 1980s, Cuba began to withdraw its military from its occupied countries and ‘abandoned’ its support of revolutionary movements. Since the last forces were removed from Angola in 1991 there has been no active fighting abroad by the Cuban military and they have instead adopted a ‘war of the people to shift the emphasis to defensive capabilities. Currently, the greatest fear is an attack from the USA, possibly through Guantanamo Bay.

 

Publishers comment: The author of this article did not work with quote notes. The last pages provide the reader with a list of sources on which this article refers. 

the article was written by Asghari Kosar, Rigby Miranda

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Public spaces play an important role in urban life in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Offering space for all activities related to social life like politics, communication, trade, representation, religion, sports, and leisure. The public space symbolizes the society of its formation and has changed significantly over the last 700 years in the continent's troubled history. Indigenous society, colonialism, slavery, revolutions, migration and the modern city of consumption have all left their marks and form the fundament of today's cities. Fragments of all times can still be found today but recent developments dominate modern public spaces in LAC, ranging from shiny shopping centers to dusty voids between informal settlements. However, these inequalities led to growing awareness, „that public space is the only urban land use where all social classes are welcome“.⁶ 

article written by Asghari Kosar, Pujol Carlos, Dürr Niklas

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The Cuban political singularities had not been indifferent to the rest of the world since their final emancipation 61 years ago. The island created a stable and robust enclave, openly communist and anti-imperialist, 90 miles away from the US, its former colonizer and perhaps the most notorious representative of the capitalist system. During this time, just three people, belonging to only one Communist Party, have led the country. This fact has continuously called into question the Cuban democratic character and its human rights situation. In this context, the US has maintained an economic embargo typical of the Cold War logic, which has put the island in a problematic situation, especially after the USSR‘s disappearance. After the recent end of the Castro brothers‘ era, both leaders of the Cuban Revolution, there has been speculation about the country‘s political direction with the arrival in 2019 of its new president Miguel Diaz-Canel and the new Constitution accepted by popular referendum a year before. However, all these elements that make Cuba unique in political terms remain more than valid. 

the article was written by Sanchez Santiago, Dimitrova Donka

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Housing plays an integral part in our everyday lives and has the ”unique capacity to define the urban form and the character of the city” 

Generally, Social Housing is understood as a residential project for those who could not otherwise afford accommodation, which is either built by the government or a non-governmental organization. Residents can purchase units, rent them at subsidized prices, or be given them.

However, the current understanding of social housing is constantly changing. The definition is far removed from its original meaning, and now includes a wider range of residential types. In Europe, the term “social housing” varies across the continent. In Britain it is called “social housing”, in France, “housing at moderate rent” (habitation à loyer modéré), while in Denmark it is “common housing”, Austria “people’s housing”, and in Germany, it is called “housing promotion”.

The changing views and terminology around social housing shift with changing politics, “with housing seen as something earned, to being a universal right and back again”. Architects today are reengaging with the topic of social housing, after years of it being marginalized.

article written by KIRTAK, TILDEM / NIKITA, SCHWEIZER /  SUSANA CORDOVES PUPO

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The largest of the Caribbean islands, Cuba is situated between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. The country is made up of 15 provinces, and its capital and the most populous city is Havana, or “Habana” in Spanish.

The geographic coordinates of Cuba are 21°30 N, 80°00 W.² The country has a total area of 110 860 km² of which more than 99% island. As is common, the territorial sea claim extends 12 nautical miles from Cuba’s shores. The country has an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles, which is negotiated at relevant intersections between the surrounding countries.³

Cuba was discovered by Christopher Columbus and the European empire, in 1492. Over the following centuries, Cuba developed as a Spanish colony until gaining independence. During its colonial years, Havana became the departure point for ships travelling to Spain from Mexico and Peru. In 1898 Cuba gained independence from Spain, and three and a half years later freed itself from American rule in 1902.⁴

The publisher needs to declare that this article doesn‘t want to negate the fact, that certainly there was a pre-colonial society.  

article written by KROPACHEVA, EKATERINA, SCHWEIZER, NIKITA

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There is a variety of beliefs in Cuba that reflect different cultural elements. The main religions in Cuba are the Christianity of the Roman Catholic Church, the Santería and numerous Protestant denominations.

However, the current figures on the spread of religions within Cuba are divergent. According to one, 57% of Cubans are baptized Catholics, while 5% of the population belong to Protestant churches.1 In addition to the Christian churches, the practice of santeria plays an important role for many Cubans. But there is no detailed information on the number of people belonging to this religion. In addition to Catholicism, Protestants, and Santéria, there are also religious minorities: Muslims, Jehovah‘s Witnesses, and Jews.

the article was written by Sermin Devecioglu, Huiyan Long

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To understand the current state of media violence within Cuba, we need to look back to 1958. The media made a significant contribution to the Cuban revolution and the overthrow of the then ruling dictator Fulgencio Batista.

While Batista assured the international press that the guerrilla army surrounding Fidel Castro and Che Guevara was not in danger1, the rebels managed to spread their message and political position with the help of the radio station Radio Rebelde founded by Che Guevaras. The station aimed to use a propaganda tool to criticize the social injustice under Batista's government and to support the revolution.2 Due to the lack of access to print media and the high proportion of illiterate people in the population (around 40 percent until 1960)3, the radio gained special importance as a mass medium. Thanks to the newly gained reach, the movement received the necessary attention and was able to convince numerous groups from the broader population to join the rebels.

the article was written by Sebastian Gubernatis, Felix Hahn

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This essay is an analysis about massive construction and prefabricated systems with the focus on Cuba during the first years of Revolution until now. Our main goal is to explain the variety of formal and structural alternatives found by architects and city planners as an answer to the challenge of constructing big projects with low resources. Besides we mean to talk about how these alternatives have changed through the years depending on the social, political and economical context, and their advantages and disadvantages among others.

the article was written by Sebastian Gubernatis, Claudia Ixchel

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Generally, simple construction or low-tech architecture encompasses structures that are simply built using local, natural materials and use passive solutions for climate control. However, the definition varies greatly depending on context and culture. Technology or materials that are considered ‘simple’ in some countries may be hard to get or foreign in others. As a result, it is generally easier to define low-tech through several factors that can be applied in any setting. These include materiality, construction methods, passive technology, cultural suitability, and participation (Khalil, Fikry, and Abdeaal 2018, 3780; Haselsteiner et al. 2017). 

the article was written by HARTWAY Alexander, RIGBY Miranda, GONZALES PANECA Carla

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Loam is part of the upper area of the solid earth‘s crust which has been transformed over millennia under the influence of weather, flora, and fauna (cf. Schroder 2018: 62). During soil formation, breakdown products of inorganic and organic substances are converted and built up into new components that are characteristic of the particular soil. While the humus-rich A-horizon forms the basis for vegetation and agriculture, suitable building soil can be taken from the lighter colored, humus-free B-horizon. There are four main types of mineral soils: gravel, sand, silt, and loam. These main types of soil are mostly mixed, so loams are typical mixed-grain soils. Clay acts as a binding material between the coarse-grained components (gravel, sand, silt). Depending on the clay content, a distinction is made between cohesive and non-cohesive loam (cf. Schroder 2018: 62). Climatic regions and geological foundations determine the different compositions and the resulting varying potentials of loam as a building material. But in general, loam is available almost everywhere because the formation process is similar all over the world.#

Loam has always served humans as a building material.

10,000 BC, mankind‘s form of food procurement changed from hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal farming. This requires solid dwellings, constructed largely of wood, natural stone, and earth. Loam is used either as solid construction, i.e. in a load-bearing function or as a skeleton construction in combination with wood. The construction methods depend on the climatic region and given wood resources. These methods can be traced back thousands of years in history worldwide. The first solid house constructions were discovered by archaeologists, in southwestern Asia, in the areas of today‘s Turkey / Iran. The oldest house constructions made of loam were found in Catal Höyük, today‘s Anatolia (cf. Schroeder 2018: 2). Loam is also a widely used building material in China. Techniques such as the rammed earth construction or the construction with mud bricks have been known here for thousands of years. The Great Wall of China was partly built using loam among other materials (cf. Schroeder 2018: 4).

article written by MARIANN BRITO GIL , JULIUS HEMPEN , JOCHEN SCHUMACHER

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Infrastructure in Cuba acts as a visual representation of the island‘s tumultuous history. Characterized in the first half of the twentieth century by a range of successful engineering projects such as the 1958 Havana Bay Tunnel [B3], the ensuing half-century of trade embargo amounting to a near blockade imposed by the US—its nearest and economically most powerful neighbor—as a sanction against socialist government rapidly curbed the island‘s access to materials and resources. It was therefore in many cases deprived of the capacity to maintain and modernize infrastructure.  Given Cuba‘s inherently remote location as an island nation, its infrastructure adopted a similar penchant for improvisation, local innovation, and ad-hoc functionality.

As a general rule, the government prioritizes tourism as a catalyzing industry to spur further development. Resultingly, many infrastructural improvement projects, such as water distribution piping replacement [B1], have benefitted resort districts first to make the island more desirable for visitors, who in turn are expected to support the local economy through their consumer expenditures. Capital is then made available to fund further projects that benefit the general populace. The transparency of this approach, cited in more than a few writings on the topic, of course, should be taken with a grain of salt depending on the specific actors and multinational agencies involved in the dealmaking. This chapter will take a brief look at Cuban „infrastructures“ in the traditional sense of the word (underlying support systems that allow society to function) through the lens of four topics: water and sanitation, communications, transportation, and energy. These systems each have a range of successes and failures. Within all of them, however, common willpower is evident amongst the Cuban people to be self-reliant in the absence of better solutions. Although the strong and centralized socialist government could be criticized for withholding certain technologies or amenities from its population, it also had very few alternatives in the face of geographic isolation and trade deprivation. In perhaps even a somewhat perverse way, the issue of frequently inadequate provisions by the government forced the Cuban people to depend on each other and a welfare state, which aided in the building of a meaningful social infrastructure.   An underground neighborhood intranet haphazardly strung between residents and a series of satellite nodes [B2], although crude, brought much of the urban population online well before the state telecommunications agency offered official connection options across its more formalized (and heavily monitored) network. Similarly, semi-regular power outages in the overburdened and undermaintained supply grid [B4].      

The article was written by DÜRR, NIKLAS ; HARTWAY, ALEXANDER

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“The name Cuba for the largest of the Antilles Islands goes back to the name Colba. It is not known whether this meant the whole island or just the land of the Taíno in the east. Colba - as Columbus understood it during the first encounters - became the more resounding Cuba.“ (see Zeuske 2007, 9-12.)

The island of Cuba has been inhabited by humans for several thousand years. The first human traces that man found on the island go back to 10,000 - 8,000 years BC. However, relatively little is known of the history, traditions, and culture of the people who lived in Cuba before Columbus‘ discovery.(see Zeuske 2007, 9-12.) When Cuba was discovered by Christopher Columbus on October 27, 1492, three different indigenous peoples were already living on the island. A total of around 200,000 people were counted, of which the Taíno indigenous people formed the largest group. (see Zeuske 2007, 9-12.) They lived in simple circumstances and were housed in huts made of palm leaves and caves. It is particularly noteworthy that the indigenous peoples in Cuba were the first who smoked tobacco and thus recognized the potential of the plants. The majority of the aborigines died in the following years after being discovered due to wars and introduced diseases. (see solidarity 2018, 01: 00-02)

The article was written by Ioannis Tekeoglou, Philipp Müller

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Cuba (or Republica de Cuba) is the largest country by land area in the Caribbean. Cuba is situated just south of the Tropic of Cancer at the intersection of the Atlantic Ocean (north and east), the Gulf of Mexico (west), and the Caribbean Sea (south) [Fig1]. Haiti, the nearest neighboring country, is 48 miles (77 km) to the east, across the Windward Passage; Jamaica is 87 miles (140 km) to the south; the Bahamas archipelago extends to within 50 miles (80 km) of the northern coast, and the United States is about 90 miles (150 km) to the north across the Straits of Florida [1].

The country comprises an archipelago of about 1,600 islands and cays [2]. The islands form an important segment of the Antilles (or West Indies) island chain, which encloses the Caribbean Sea. The island of Cuba itself is the largest of the Antilles chain and constitutes one of the four islands of the Greater Antilles. In general, the island is long and narrow—1,250 km long and 191 km at its widest, and 31 km at its narrowest point. Cuba is divided into 4 main archipelagoes (Fig2): Los Colorados, to the northwest; Sabana and Camagüey, both on the north-central coast; the Jardines de la Reina (“Queen’s Gardens”), near the south coast; and Canarreos, near the southwest coast. Juventud Island (Isla de la Juventud; “Isle of Youth”). It is the second largest of the Cuban islands, covering 2,200 square km.

The article was written by Emma Verdier, Dominik Glueck

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This work deals with the topic of filigree construction and a possible adaptation for the architecture in Cuba. The word filgran originally comes from Latin and is composed of the words filum (Latin thread or wire) and granum (Latin grain), literally translated as “grained wire”.1 In a figurative sense, the term filigree describes a goldsmith‘s work consisting of a fine mesh of wires made of gold and silver.2 In architecture, filigree is not a firmly defined, but a compound term that tries to describe a certain type of construction that could also be described as delicate or light. In many cases, the term filigree construction is defined in contrast to solid construction, in which the space-enclosing parts of a building, such as walls and ceilings, take on the load-bearing function, whereas in filigree or lightweight construction the load-bearing function is taken over by other types of components.3

The article was written by Alejandra Dominguez, Lucie Houdouin, Heiko Rehage

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The history of the Cuban education system goes back to the time of the revolution. After Fidel Castro took power in 1959, he took care of the impoverished population with the “literacy campaign” and free education. In doing so, he legitimized the socialist government and created the myth of the colossal educational system.

But with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1992, a turning point and a period of great economic difficulties began. At that time, academics left their positions to enter the tourism industry. The low prospects for the future meant that young Cubans no longer went to the universities.

Many today have several jobs, working as teachers during the day and taxi drivers at night. Teachers earn an average of around 22 euros a month. What used to be a lot of money is no longer even enough to survive after the economic crisis, cuts in food subsidies, and higher prices. This not only affects the quality of life but also the quality of schooling.

The article was written by HELEN FLEMMING,  MAGDALENA STEPIEN

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To analyze public buildings in Cuba and around the world, we first need to define a common understanding of public architecture. The way public buildings were perceived changed over time. The perception of public architecture 100 years ago was very different than it is today. Nowadays, a public building is defined as any building open to the general use, participation, or enjoyment of the public and owned and operated by a city, county, state, or federal government, or by a public utility corporation. In a broader sense, a public building can be a hospital, a capitol building, a school or kindergarten, a college or university, a city hall, a church, a railway station, a library, or a museum. The basic requirement for all public buildings is the public use of the exterior as well as the interior. Buildings need to be accessible - however not at all times of the day. When speaking of public architecture, parks, plazas, town squares, and even art installations can be defined as public.^1,2 In our research study, we want to focus on public buildings that are only designed and built for one specific public use. E.g. as universities are open to the public, they combine educational and public functions. Though in this research we want to focus on architecture that only serves society for gathering, participation (e.g. in elections), and enjoyment. Its objectives are to bring together the community around culture, education, administration, and religion. As public architecture is intertwined with its construction, we need to define the specific characteristics and forces of public construction. Public-sector construction is the section of the built environment that consists of public services and public enterprises that are owned by the government. Usually, a public project is financed (or part-financed) by the public sector and is operated by the government. Typically, public projects are costly due to their size, and representative architectural design language. Thus, several stakeholders contribute to the financing of public projects. State governments, federal governments, cities, and sometimes even private firms invest in the construction of public buildings.³ 

article written by Ginet M. G. Porras , Dominik Glück, Philipp Merbeler

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Since its establishment by the Spanish in the 16th century, Havana, taking the advantage of the ports, started its booming export economy based on the slave and sugar trade which had provided funds for the building construction in both private estates and public areas. In the 1700s, it became one of the most important cities in Latin America.1

 Its modern urban layout comes from the Spanish urban planning tradition - multiple churches and squares supplemented by regular street grids that vary in the length and width of the streets and the size of the blocks. These urban grids form a radial pattern of blocks from the harbor to the south and the west. In addition, the size of each area demonstrates a certain relationship with its different local conditions and history. The Old Havana with the longest history in the capital owns the smallest regular grid. The blocks are smaller and the streets are shorter. Compared to other areas, the overall geometric order of the urban grid in this area is not as consistent as in the young areas.2 For example, comparing Old Havana with EL Vedado, which was built in the mid-18th century on the west side of the old city, their street structure and scale are different. As a relatively young area, Vedado‘s urban design shows its uniqueness compared with Havana‘s established urban planning. One of the novel aspects is the geographical direction of the block at a 45-degree angle to the rest of the city to take full advantage of the breeze. Another aspect is to include trees in its regular streets, promenades, and city parks. In addition, wide roads, sidewalks, and parterres would facilitate years later the arrival of the automobile.3 

article written by Ailyn de la Caridad Sierra Paneque, Sermin Devecioglu, Huiyan Long

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Cuba of today is a particular example of radical change in the agriculture system throughout its history, from conventional agriculture, intensive in chemicals and pesticides, to a model based on organic materials that are applied now. Although, before 1989 Cuba didn’t have any experience in this sector, nowadays it is one of the major and leading countries with a lot of knowledge in this domain. An interesting fact is that organic farming in Cuba started around 1990 as a spontaneous action and initiative of inexperienced groups on farming methods. Those actions formed cooperatives. 

Afterward, it was rapidly institutionalized and transformed into one of the state’s main priorities as a solution to the extreme food and resource shortages. 

article written by VACHEZ INES & DIMITROUDI MARIA.

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